EAP Review – The TESOL Way (ch. 13)

Withers, P. (2014). TESOL made practical for all situations (4th Ed.). Language Training Institute:                         Queensland. 

EAP Review – Assessments

Alexander, O., Argent, S. & Spencer, J. (Eds.) (2008). EAP Essentials: A teacher's guide to principle and practice. (ch. 10, 303-338) Garnet Publishing: Reading.

Assessment

Assessment types

• Purposes of assessment
• formative
• aptitude
• diagnostic
• progress
• summative
• achievement
• proficiency
• placement

Assessment at university ~ notes

Ls need:

• formative feedback on their work linked explicitly to the assessment descriptors
• encouragement through model answer exercises
• to engage actively with feedback
• comments only relevant to the purpose of the assignment
• patterns of errors identified.

Quality assurance:

• some universities and their language centres engage in 'blind' marking, wherein markers do not know the identity of the students.

 Validity:

• the university context can be simulated within the classroom
• deadlines for drafts
• timed activities
• peer assignment meetings
• participation in peer discussions
• peer evaluation of work against assessment criteria
• self-evaluation of work against assessment criteria. 

Assessment rubric / descriptor (using A - E grades, + & -):

Task –> classify a concept or process in your field of study in around 300 words.

• Task achievement
• are the main issues discussed? 
• is there a clear focus on the question?
• e.g., A = 'it fully answers all aspects of the task in sufficient depth; the classification is set in an appropriate context, and the purpose explained; the categories are clearly distinguished and explained.'
• e.g., B = 'it answers the task in sufficient depth to cover the main points; the classification is set in context, although the purpose may be unclear; the categories are explained, but it may not be clear that the text is a classification.'
• e.g., C = 'the main points are covered, but there may be some irrelevant ideas; the context and purpose may not be explained clearly; there is some attempt to explain the categories, but it may not be clear that what's written is a classification.'
• e.g., D = 'not all aspects of the task are covered, or not in enough depth; the context and purpose are not explained; the text may be a description rather than a classification and fail to distinguish different categories.'
• 
  
• Structural organisation
• present of introduction and conclusion as well as division and linking of paragraphs.
• Language
• is functional language used and is it accurate?
• is there range in vocabulary and grammar?

Grading process

1. form an overall impression of the text
2. assign a grade to each category in turn, referring to assessment descriptors
3. review the grade incorporating knowledge of L needs.

Portfolios:

• Ls are aware of their progress
• delayed evaluation gives Ls a chance to improve work before summative assessment
• particular assessment descriptors improved on separately throughout portfolio.

Lessons stages

Lead-ins: 

• oral paragraphs prompts Ls to remember information and produce it in their won words.

*T: What did we do last lesson?

S1: We watched a lecture video

S2: We did some reading before we watched the video

S3: Not all of us read, there were two groups

T: Can you remember the names of the two groups?

S4: The control group. They didn’t read but the experimental group read for homework.

T: Why did we do it this way?

S5: To find out how much reading helps before listening.

S6: We compared the groups to test our hypothesis.

• timed draft writing simulating test conditions (arrive and write) using a projected contrast table (+ / - ), or a cause and effect chain or classification map prompts Ls to think and write quickly.

Pre-teach vocabulary:

• Weekly non-cryptic Crosswords
• Academic Word Highlighter
• spot and highlight only these words in a text / Ls create own gap fill
• Retrieval & Matching
• retrieve collocates from a text and match them to their definition

Critical thinking:

• choose an item for example 'bananas': 'which features make this suitable or unsuitable as money?'
• focussed note-taking: take notes from a text to answers an essay question
• subsequent writing: 200-300 words, explain which (bananas) is good form of money and what is wrong with the other two.

EAP study: Summary of Methods & Movements in ELT

 

Richards J. & Rodgers T. (2003). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd. Ed. Cambridge University Press.

Changes in methodology, historically, correlate to changes in L proficiency needs, such as oral goals over reading goals, and also to changes in theories of acquisition.

The Grammar-Translation Method

• Roots: 19th cent. efforts to codify TL into frozen rules into textbooks (see Seidenstücker and Plötz), later popularised in the US under the 'Prussian Method'.

• Approach:
• render acquisition easier
• previous methods equipped L with rules for deciphering difficult, whole L2 texts (classical Greek and Latin)
• accuracy is emphasised
• deductive
• systematic and scaffolded syllabus
• medium not instruction = L1
• little literature available in pedagogy, psycholinguistics or other.

• Method: analysis of grammar rules applied through translation at sentence level, L1-L2, L2-L1.

The Reform Movement

• Roots: end of 19th cent. developed outside established circles of education, innovations of reform-minded language teaching specialist and linguists (read Marcel, Prendergast, Gouin) coincided to address European needs to learn language for communicative purposes (but propelled by Sweet, Viëtor and Passy). Foundations for later methods such as Situational Language Teaching and Total Physical Response.

• Approaches & methods: 
• oral-based
• child acquisition perspective (naturalistic)
• emphasis on learning in context
• use of reactions and gestures to convey meaning.
• incorporated pronunciation drills (Viëtor; coincided with IPA, 1886)
• dialogue texts
• inductive
• associations derived from L1 not L2.
• arrangement between four skills (Sweet) (reading, writing, speaking, listening)
• grading materials from simple to complex (Sweet)

• Reformed principles:
• should be spoken-language-centric
• should be phonetics trained
• should hear TL before seeing it
• words should be in sentences, and sentences in meaningful contexts not isolated
• any grammar rules should be inductive
• translation should be avoided.

The Direct Method

• Roots: At various times attempts have been made to make second language learning more like first language learning (see Natural Method, e.g., Sauveur, 1826-1907 & Berlitz in the US). Approved in France and Germany turn of the 20th century). Important, as it marked the beginning of the 'methods era' and designing and branding easy-to-market courses.

• Approach: 
• acquisition through monolingual environment
• spontaneous production
• absence of textbooks
• grammar induced, but still emphasis on correctness
• knowledge of learned systems (grammar) only useful for monitoring output.                                              

• Method: 
• mime, demonstration, pictures (concrete items)
• 'association of ideas' (abstract items)
• activity-based

• Faults:
• higher qualification base of Ts meant difficulties in widespread adaptation in public schools, for example
• availability of native speakers
• overemphasis on naturalistic similarities
• oversight of practical realities of classrooms of adult Ls.
• occasionally L1 is more efficient route to comprehension
• academically criticised (Brown 1973)
• https://rozynskijournal.blogspot.com/2012/12/lessons-from-stephen-krashens-linguist.html

The British Approach

• Roots: in the 1920s and 1930s, systematised earlier principles proposed by the Reform Movement, leading to the Auidolingual Method (US) Oral or Situational Approach (Britain).

• Principles:
• teaching goals
• consider basic nature of L1
• principled selection of content
• organised and ordered presentation of content
• define role of L1
• what processes best master a language?
• what teaching techniques and activities work best?

The most active period of method design was from the 1950s to the 1980s. 

Audiolingual method (1950s and 1960s). 

• seen to provide a way forward, with the latest psychology and linguistic insights. 

Other methods 'filled the gap' when the Audiolingual method became unfavourable, such as 

the Silent Way, Suggestopedia and Total Physical Response, though with smaller followings. 

See also the Counselling-Learning method and the Natural Method (https://rozynskijournal.blogspot.com/2012/12/lessons-from-stephen-krashens-linguist.html)

They were superseded by the Communicative Approach (1980s - today).

• Communicative methods' principles are derived from trying to describe the nature of language, rather than prescribed techniques to be used in language teaching.

Further communicative: Content-Based Instruction and Tasked-Based Language Teaching emerged in the 1990s (see also Competency-Based Instruction)

General education derived Whole Language, Cooperative Learning, Lexical, and Multiple Intelligences approaches also were methods adopted to language teaching.

The post-methods era – Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT appealed to a mainstream who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, interaction is prioritised. It quickly received the status of orthodoxy  (British Council, etc.) and was sanctioned in applied linguistics, language specialist and other publishers' literature. Syllabuses were organised in terms of notions of functions rather than grammatical structures (Wilkins, 1976). Importance of L needs analysis evolved into CLT (Munby 1978) as did specific group work, task-work and information-gap activities (Prabhu 1987).

• Core characteristics (Johnson and Johnson, 1998):

• Appropriateness
• use must be appropriate to situation it reflects – roles, purpose, register (mode, tenor, filed?)
• Message focus
• Ls need to create real and meaningful messages, hence the focus on information sharing activities
• Psycholinguistic processing
• CLT seeks to engages Ls cognitively
• Risk taking
• communicative strategies are developed through encouragement of attempts (see attempts, slips, mistakes)
• Free practice
• rather than practising one skill at a time, a holistic approach to skills is encouraged.

• caveat: although agreed the most plausible method for today, its principles appear to have become general and interpreted in a variety of ways (as communicative approaches are derived from trying to describe the nature of language, rather than prescribed techniques to be used in language teaching).

Current movements

These movements are all content-based instruction: Language across the curriculum, Immersion Education, Immigrant On-Arrival Programmes, Programmes for Students with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP) and Language for Specific Purposes (LSP).

LSP encompasses English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

Content-Based Instruction (CBI)  & English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

CBI is described as learning a language as a vehicle for learning content. CBI is founded on:

1. People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means for acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself – content is the point of departure in planning
2. Content-based instruction better reflects Ls' needs, e.g., to prepare for academic studies, where Ls' accessibility to academic content and the processes they will be exposed to are realised. 

Theory of Language

Underlying assumptions of language:

• LANGUAGE IS TEXT- AND DISCOURSE-BASED
• TL items exceed sentence level
• textual and discourse structures of letters, reports, essays, descriptions, book chapters, and also meetings, lectures and discussions are learned
• coherence and cohesion markers are learned.

• LANGUAGE USE DRAWS ON INTEGRATED SKILLS
• skills are linked as they are in the real world
• brings together knowledge, language and thinking skills
• Ls might read and take notes, listen and write a summary, or respond orally to things they have read or written.

• LANGUAGE IS PURPOSEFUL
• Ls must be clearly in tune with its purpose (academic, vocational, social…)
• Ts grade their own talk is important, such as
• simplification (non-complex sentences)
• wellformedness (few derivations from 'standard' usage)
• explicitness (non-reduced pronunciation)
• regularisation (canonical word order, SVO)
• redundancy (highlighting important material simultaneously).

(Stryker & Leaver, 1993) 

Theory of Learning

Successful learning occurs when Ls are presented TL in a meaningful, contextualised, primarily focussed on content over language. Mastery is of content over language per se.

• some content areas are more useful than others 
• e.g., geography – highly visual, spatial, and contextual, maps, charts and realia, descriptive language; psychology – highly structures nature of content and emphasis on receptive learning of factual information, textbooks, and visual study material. 
• Ls learn best when needs are addressed
• Ls encounter authentic texts, written or spoken
• curriculum based directly on (e.g. academic) needs
• sequenced determined by subject
• teaching builds on previous L experience
• Ls bring important knowledge to the classroom as their area of interest
• themes are already familiar.

Design

• objectives: met where course content is met over language item acquisition
• syllabus: may be made up of multidisciplinary modules designed to create a cohesive transition of certain skills, vocabulary, structures and concepts, with the first modules of accessible, high-interest themes – later modules deal with more technical proceses and assume mastery of prior TL
• micro-structure of modules moves from initial exercise of stimulating interest in theme and varied exercises of comprehension building and ability to manipulate TL appropriate to situation and then use TL
• Ls must select the appropriate TL for the situation and use it communicatively (Brinton et al. 1989).

Types of learning and teaching activities

•  classifications:
• language skills development
• vocabulary building
• communicative interaction
• study skills
• synthesis of content materials and grammar 

(Stroller, 1997)

• or, schemas of knowledge
• pactical
• description
• sequence
• choice
• theoretical
• concepts/classification
• principles
• evaluation

(Mohn, 1986)

Learner roles

Learners are generally:

• active
• autonomous
• sources of knowledge
• willing to tolerate uncertainty
• willing to explore alternate learning strategies
• willing to seek multiple interpretations

Drawbacks lie where Ls are overwhelmed by quantity of new information, not ready or not processing the schemata; method relies on psychological and cognitive readiness.

The role of materials

Materials are generally:

• rich in variety
• authentic
• realia is effective (guides, journals, newspaper articles, etc.)

Drawback lie where materials may need modification such as in lecturer presentations, providing guides and strategies to comprehend the very authentic materials.

CBI at University Level (and EAP). 

Contemporary models

Theme-based language instruction (Brinton et al., 1989)

The syllabus is organised around the themes (such as 'pollution' or 'woman's rights').

• a theme (such as 'business and marketing' might provide 2 weeks of classroom work
• TL analysis and practice evolve out of topics
• topic might be introduced through:
• reading 
• vocabulary developed through guided discussion
• audio or visual material
• integrating topic information through written assessments
• often T-generated materials

sheltered content instruction (Shih, 1986) – N/A

Adjunct language instruction  – N/A

Team-teach approach (Shih, 1986) – N/A

Skills-based approach (Shih, 1986) 

Focusses on a specific area of need such as academic writing. Ls may write in a variety of forms (short-essay tests, summaries, critiques, research reports) to demonstrate understanding of their course of study and to extend their knowledge of it.

Procedure

CBI is an approach rather than method. Lesson example:

Ls read reference materials regarding US immigration laws as well as an extract from Octavio Paz's Laberinto de la Soledad.

1. Linguistic analysis: discussion of grammar and vocabulary based on students' analysis of oral presentations done the day before.
2. Preparation for film: activities previewing vocabulary in the film, including a vocabulary worksheet.
3. Viewing a segment of the movie.
4. Discussion of the film: The teacher leads a discussion of the film.
5. Discussion of the reading.
6. Videotaped interview: Students see a short interview in which immigration matters are discussed.
7. Discussion: a discussion of immigration reform.
8. Preparation of articles: Students are given time to read related articles and prepare a class presentation.
9. Presentation of articles: Students make presentations, which may be taped so that they can later listen for self-correction.
10. Wrap-up discussion.