PME
Some views of social constructivists Confucius, Vygotsky and Dewey.
Foundational notes:–
Richards J. & Rodgers T. (2003). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd. Ed. Cambridge University Press.
Killen. (2015). Effective Teaching Strategies : Lessons from Research and Practice (Seventh edition.). Cengage Learning Australia
The most active period of method design was from the 1950s to the 1980s. Changes in methodology, historically, correlate to changes in learner proficiency needs, such as oral goals over reading goals, and also to changes in theories of acquisition.
The Communicative Approach (1980s - today) superseded the following of the 'methods era' of language teaching: the Grammar-Translation Method, the Reform Movement, the Direct Method, the British Approach, the Audiolingual Method, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response (TPR), Counselling-Learning, and the Natural Method.
Communicative methods' principles are derived from trying to describe the nature of language, rather than prescribed techniques to be used in language teaching.
The post-methods era – Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT appealed to a mainstream who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, interaction is prioritised. It quickly received the status of orthodoxy (British Council, etc.) and was sanctioned in applied linguistics, language specialist and other publishers' literature. Syllabuses were organised in terms of notions of functions rather than grammatical structures (Wilkins, 1976). Importance of L needs analysis evolved into CLT (Munby 1978) as did specific group work, task-work and information-gap activities (Prabhu 1987).
- Core characteristics (Johnson and Johnson, 1998):
- Appropriateness
- use must be appropriate to situation it reflects – roles, purpose, register (mode, tenor, filed?)
- Message focus
- Ls need to create real and meaningful messages, hence the focus on information sharing activities
- Psycholinguistic processing
- CLT seeks to engages Ls cognitively
- Risk taking
- communicative strategies are developed through encouragement of attempts (see attempts, slips, mistakes)
- Free practice
- rather than practising one skill at a time, a holistic approach to skills is encouraged.
- caveat: although agreed the most plausible method for today, its principles appear to have become general and interpreted in a variety of ways (as communicative approaches are derived from trying to describe the nature of language, rather than prescribed techniques to be used in language teaching).
Current movements
These movements are all content-based instruction: Language across the curriculum, Immersion Education, Immigrant On-Arrival Programmes, Programmes for Students with Limited English Proficiency (SLEP) and Language for Specific Purposes (LSP).
LSP encompasses English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) & English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
CBI is described as learning a language as a vehicle for learning content. CBI is founded on:
- People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means for acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself – content is the point of departure in planning
- Content-based instruction better reflects Ls' needs, e.g., to prepare for academic studies, where Ls' accessibility to academic content and the processes they will be exposed to are realised.
Theory of Language
Underlying assumptions of language:
- LANGUAGE IS TEXT- AND DISCOURSE-BASED
- TL items exceed sentence level
- textual and discourse structures of letters, reports, essays, descriptions, book chapters, and also meetings, lectures and discussions are learned
- coherence and cohesion markers are learned.
- LANGUAGE USE DRAWS ON INTEGRATED SKILLS
- skills are linked as they are in the real world
- brings together knowledge, language and thinking skills
- Ls might read and take notes, listen and write a summary, or respond orally to things they have read or written.
- LANGUAGE IS PURPOSEFUL
- Ls must be clearly in tune with its purpose (academic, vocational, social…)
- Ts grade their own talk is important, such as
- simplification (non-complex sentences)
- wellformedness (few derivations from 'standard' usage)
- explicitness (non-reduced pronunciation)
- regularisation (canonical word order, SVO)
- redundancy (highlighting important material simultaneously).
(Stryker & Leaver, 1993)
Theory of Learning
Successful learning occurs when Ls are presented TL in a meaningful, contextualised, primarily focussed on content over language. Mastery is of content over language per se.
- some content areas are more useful than others
- e.g., geography – highly visual, spatial, and contextual, maps, charts and realia, descriptive language; psychology – highly structures nature of content and emphasis on receptive learning of factual information, textbooks, and visual study material.
- Ls learn best when needs are addressed
- Ls encounter authentic texts, written or spoken
- curriculum based directly on (e.g. academic) needs
- sequenced determined by subject
- teaching builds on previous L experience
- Ls bring important knowledge to the classroom as their area of interest
- themes are already familiar.
Design
- objectives: met where course content is met over language item acquisition
- syllabus: may be made up of multidisciplinary modules designed to create a cohesive transition of certain skills, vocabulary, structures and concepts, with the first modules of accessible, high-interest themes – later modules deal with more technical proceses and assume mastery of prior TL
- micro-structure of modules moves from initial exercise of stimulating interest in theme and varied exercises of comprehension building and ability to manipulate TL appropriate to situation and then use TL
- Ls must select the appropriate TL for the situation and use it communicatively (Brinton et al. 1989).
Types of learning and teaching activities
- classifications:
- language skills development
- vocabulary building
- communicative interaction
- study skills
- synthesis of content materials and grammar
(Stroller, 1997)
- or, schemas of knowledge
- pactical
- description
- sequence
- choice
- theoretical
- concepts/classification
- principles
- evaluation
(Mohn, 1986)
Learner roles
Learners are generally:
- active
- autonomous
- sources of knowledge
- willing to tolerate uncertainty
- willing to explore alternate learning strategies
- willing to seek multiple interpretations
Drawbacks lie where Ls are overwhelmed by quantity of new information, not ready or not processing the schemata; method relies on psychological and cognitive readiness.
The role of materials
Materials are generally:
- rich in variety
- authentic
- realia is effective (guides, journals, newspaper articles, etc.)
CBI at University Level (and EAP).
Contemporary models
Theme-based language instruction (Brinton et al., 1989)
The syllabus is organised around the themes (such as 'pollution' or 'woman's rights').
- a theme (such as 'business and marketing' might provide 2 weeks of classroom work
- TL analysis and practice evolve out of topics
- topic might be introduced through:
- reading
- vocabulary developed through guided discussion
- audio or visual material
- integrating topic information through written assessments
- often T-generated materials
Skills-based approach (Shih, 1986)
Focusses on a specific area of need such as academic writing. Ls may write in a variety of forms (short-essay tests, summaries, critiques, research reports) to demonstrate understanding of their course of study and to extend their knowledge of it.
Procedure
CBI is an approach rather than method. Lesson example:
Ls read reference materials regarding US immigration laws as well as an extract from Octavio Paz's Laberinto de la Soledad.
- Linguistic analysis: discussion of grammar and vocabulary based on students' analysis of oral presentations done the day before.
- Preparation for film: activities previewing vocabulary in the film, including a vocabulary worksheet.
- Viewing a segment of the movie.
- Discussion of the film: The teacher leads a discussion of the film.
- Discussion of the reading.
- Videotaped interview: Students see a short interview in which immigration matters are discussed.
- Discussion: a discussion of immigration reform.
- Preparation of articles: Students are given time to read related articles and prepare a class presentation.
- Presentation of articles: Students make presentations, which may be taped so that they can later listen for self-correction.
- Wrap-up discussion.
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